15 historical figures who may have never existed

Time has a way of smudging the line between myth and reality. We assume that history books are filled with hard facts, but they can be surprisingly unreliable—and even veer into fiction. These 15 historical figures may be legendary, but are they more than myths on a page? Read on to find out!

In 1976, author Alex Haley wrote a riveting novel called Roots: The Saga of an American Family, which traced the life and descendants of an African man sold into slavery named Kunta Kinte. The story, which Haley claimed was based on his own real-life ancestor, quickly became a bestseller and even inspired the beloved ABC miniseries Roots. Too bad much of the facts were fiction! Haley himself admitted that the work was “faction,” and while historians later found that a man named Kunta Kinte had existed in Gambia, he was probably never shipped as a slave to America.

One of the most popular folk heroes in British history, Robin Hood was said to live in Sherwood Forest during the reign of King Richard, stealing from the rich and giving to the poor. Unfortunately, the Prince of Thieves was likely fictitious, brought to life in a series of medieval ballads. Academics have scoured historical records for traces of this arrow-slinging, forest-dwelling defender of the common folk and failed to turn up any solid evidence. But others argue that those 14th-century verses could’ve been based on a real bandit.

According to ancient Welsh folk tales, King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table led the Britons in battles against Saxon invaders in the 5th or 6th century. While we know that much of the Arthurian legends—his trusted magician Merlin, his magic sword Excalibur, and his quest for the Holy Grail—were invented by writers throughout history, the monarch’s existence is still under debate. Some scholars claim that he’s simply a hero of Celtic mythology, while others believe he was based on a real ruler.

If you ever studied classical Greek literature, you’ve probably read Homer! While scholars have found references to the poet as far back as the 7th century BCE, little is known about this shadowy figure. Evidence of his existence is shaky at best, and many ancient texts and biographies have been shown to be more myth than reality. In fact, some scholars argue that Homer’s famed epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey were “products of an oral tradition” performed by several anonymous Greek bards, and never written at all!

According to historians, Confucius was an ancient Chinese sage and minister of state who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His teachings and philosophy, known as Confucianism, focused on morality and personal virtue, and he remains influential across China and East Asia to this day. But while his works live on, the man himself may not have existed. The earliest accounts of Confucius came some 400 years after his death, and a handful of scholars have even proposed that the philosopher was invented by Jesuit missionaries!

Revered in Christianity and Judaism, King Solomon was a powerful monarch and prophet—or so the Bible says. While scholars have been able to prove the existence of later biblical kings, many believe that Solomon is “an outright myth.” But the debate was reignited in 2021, when British marine archeologist Dr. Sean Kingsley claimed to have found traces of Solomon’s empire in the Mediterranean. Plus, a 2023 study revealed new archeological evidence to support that he did in fact reign in the early 10th century BCE.

Surprised? That’s right—the Greek philosopher, mathematician, and name behind the Pythagorean theorem may not have been a real person. Some scholars argue that the name was used as a symbol or persona, as every historical account of Pythagoras comes from second- or third-hand sources. Others have hypothesized that his disciples, the Pythagoreans, are responsible for his discoveries and teachings. Across the board, historical evidence suggests that Pythagoras, if he did exist, was mostly a source of mystical wisdom.

St. Christopher, the protector of travellers, is one of the most popular patron saints in Catholicism. Trendy St. Christopher pendants have been worn by safety-seeking wanderers everywhere, from sailors to motorcyclists to digital-nomad influencers. But in 1969, Pope Paul VI removed the martyr from the universal calendar and revoked his feast day. Why? Because there wasn’t enough evidence that the man had ever existed. While archeological traces of St. Christopher’s life have been unearthed, the debate among historians is ongoing.

History buffs are probably familiar with the Spartan lawgiver, Lycurgus. He’s credited with founding several military and political institutions in Sparta, making it one of the most powerful cities in Ancient Greece. But experts can’t agree on whether the legend truly lived and breathed. Historical accounts of his life are ambiguous, and scholars have conflicting opinions on their accuracy. Some argue that Lycurgus is completely fictitious and based on archaic mythologies, while others believe that his name was used to represent several people.

Along with Confucianism and Buddhism, Taoism (or Daoism) is one of the three main currents of Chinese thought. But amazingly, the alleged founder of this philosophical tradition and religion may not have been a real person. Laozi, meaning “Old Master” in Chinese, is said to have lived in the 6th century BCE. While his biography was written in 100 BCE, the information is vague and full of unverified, questionable stories. According to some modern-day scholars, “there was never a historical Laozi.” Whether or not he ever existed, Laozi is revered as a “supreme deity” in religious Taoism.

If you were a kid in the ‘90s, you probably saw Disney’s animated movie Mulan. The film was based on The Ballad of Mulan, a Chinese folktale from the Northern Wei dynasty, thought to have originated in the 4th or 5th century. It’s also the first known account of the brave warrior who takes her father’s place in battle. But there are few other documents indicating that Mulan ever existed. According to scholar Sanping Chen, “Anything not contained in this original poem has been made up by much later authors, and cannot be historically substantiated.”

According to Swiss legend, William Tell was a 13th- or 14th-century peasant who was forced to shoot an apple from his son’s head, and then arrested for defying the Austrian authorities. His actions triggered a centuries-long series of events that led to the founding of the Swiss Confederation. But many scholars are convinced that Tell himself never existed. For one, the apple story was only written some 250 years after the events supposedly happened. What’s more, historians discovered that many of the alleged uprisings and battles never occurred.

Who hasn’t heard of Moses, the famous baby in a basket-turned-biblical prophet? According to Christian scripture, God spoke to him and told him to lead his chosen people out of Egypt. But there’s little evidence to suggest that the great Exodus—or Moses’ miracles—truly happened, and scholars have yet to find conclusive archeological traces of Moses himself. Some staunch believers argue that there was a man named Moses who helped a few thousand slaves escape from Egypt, but others state that it’s very unlikely that the biblical story has any truth to it.

Pope Joan is yet another legendary figure who allegedly disguised herself as a man to infiltrate an all-male institution. As the story goes, Joan was a clever female scribe with big ambitions. She was elected Pope Johannes Anglicus in the year 855 CE, but the masquerade didn’t last long, as she went into labour during a religious procession through Rome! While many experts say that Pope Joan is nothing more than a myth, some historians have found evidence that a female pope did briefly reign during that time.

English playwright William Shakespeare is considered one of the world’s greatest dramatists. But for years, critics have questioned the authorship of his works. First, there are no original manuscripts of his plays. The few accounts of his life are frustratingly sparse, and scholars have been unable to uncover letters or diaries proving his existence. Shakespeare was also a humble commoner, and some skeptics—known as Oxfordians—believe that the true author must have been highly educated. On the opposite side, Shakespeare’s supporters—Stratfordians—call this hypothesis “misguided snobbery”!